Abstract/Summary

This thesis is based on three papers, included as Chapters One, Three and Four. It investigates a specific sports economics topic to gain a better understanding of the institutional factors that affect football performance and gender variation in women’s football, especially in relation to risky decision-making and social pressure. First, the relevant institutions and national football performance were examined in men’s football, using data from 1872 onwards. Every competing football squad utilises similar production technology: the players, a soccer pitch, goalposts, and a ball. However, at the top level, there is wide variation between national football teams worldwide. Broad trends in this diversity are outlined in this thesis, in an attempt to explain why some nations do exceptionally well while others perform poorly. Macro-economic, demographic, and other hypotheses are analysed to try and explain the observed historical volatility in football performance. High GDP was found to contribute to the frequency of wins, but population often works against this. Additionally, a longer established domestic football organisation tends to be beneficial. In Chapter Two the focus shifts to women’s football, giving some historical background to the game. This is followed in Chapter Three by an analysis of male and female managers in women’s football, which is a highly competitive and data-rich environment. In men’s football, there is minimal gender variation in high-profile roles, unlike women’s football, where men often occupy top management positions. Significant variation was found between the risk preferences of male and female coaches, with male coaches being less risk-averse. More experienced coaches can also contribute to a team’s success. In Chapter Four, the relationship between social pressure and gender is subsequently explored. The question of decision-making under social pressure has been extensively researched in recent years, particularly in the arena of competitive sport. It is known that crowds can influence decision-making as part of the commonly observed home advantage. Studies have exploited variation in crowd size and intensity, as well as the complete absence of crowds during the Covid-19 pandemic. However, the gender aspect of social pressure appears to be relatively neglected. The gender of particular agents in the production process could be expected to influence decisions and therefore, outcomes. Women’s football is studied because it provides a unique setting for observing how gender could influence outcomes, given that only around 50% of head coaches are female, even though all the players and 80% of the officials are female in women’s football. Novel data were therefore collected and analysed from across 67 nations for a 41-year period. It was considered whether the variation in gender composition of important participants in women’s football matches had an impact on the effect of social pressure on specific outcomes, depending on attendance and the gender of head coaches and officials. The outcomes consisted of goals scored and official yellow or red card decisions. Evidence was found to support that different gender compositions can have a varying impact on final outcomes. In addition, under social pressure, male referees may respond differently from female referees.