Abstract/Summary

This thesis comprises three empirical papers examining the determinants and consequences of women’s employment in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, with a specific focus on Egypt and Saudi Arabia. Using large-scale nationally representative datasets and robust econometric methods, the thesis explores how early childbirth, maternal employment, and legal reforms shape women’s labour force participation, sectoral integration, and family wellbeing outcomes. The first paper investigates how the age at first birth influences women’s employment outcomes in Egypt. Using data from the 2008 and 2014 Egypt Demographic and Health Surveys (EDHS), the chapter employs Propensity Score Matching (PSM), logistic and multinomial logit models, and a Two-Stage Residual Inclusion (2SRI) approach to address endogeneity. Results indicate that early motherhood (before age 20) significantly reduces the employment, particularly in wage jobs. Delaying childbirth increase employment, and higher education levels moderate the negative effects of early childbirth, although the penalties persist even among educated women. The second paper examines the impact of maternal employment on child health in Egypt, using pooled EDHS data from 2005, 2008, and 2014. Applying an instrumental variable approach (2SLS), the chapter finds that maternal employment increases the likelihood of child stunting by 12.6%. The effects are more pronounced among children under two and vary across maternal occupations: employment in service jobs is associated with reduced stunting but higher rates of wasting, while physically demanding jobs show no significant associations. These findings highlight trade-offs between income and caregiving time, particularly during early childhood. The third paper evaluates the impact of Saudi Arabia’s 2019 legal reforms—removing male guardianship restrictions, improving travel and work rights, and introducing anti-discrimination measures—on female labour force participation. Using Labour Force Survey data from 2019 and 2022, the chapter applies a before-and-after framework and Propensity Score Matching. The results show that women’s employment increased by 10.5% following the reforms, with notable gains in male-dominated sectors such as construction and trade. Although the reforms primarily targeted women, a small positive spillover effect is observed on male employment. The findings are framed within feminist legal theory and human capital theory, illustrating the interplay between legal reforms and labour market structures.