Abstract/Summary

A key problem for second language (L2) learners in many contexts is to improve the fluency of their speech (Tavakoli & Wright, 2020). As fluent speakers often make use of fixed expressions – i.e. formulaic sequences (FS), improving our understanding of these expressions will help us understand how they impact language ability in general and fluency in particular. Although many studies focus on the complexity, accuracy and fluency (CAF) of L2 learners’ output, there are still few in-depth studies that examine the CAF of the FSs themselves as used by L2 learners. Therefore, this study aimed to address this gap by investigating the correlation between various linguistic and cognitive variables and (a) the CAF of entire speech and (b) the CAF of FSs elicited via a speech sample. Participants in the study were adult L2 learners of English in Kuwait. The sample under study (N = 51) were mostly at A1 to A2 level according to the CEFR, with some participants at B1 to C1 levels. Participants carried out a monologic speaking task revolving around the topic of giving self-introduction in a work-life context. Participants also carried out the following tasks: a general proficiency test (the Quick Placement Test), a vocabulary test (New Vocabulary Levels Test), a FSs test (the Phrasal Vocabulary Size Test), a test of familiarity of FSs (operationalised as expressions learned from the participants’ textbook) and working memory tasks (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale IV). This study proposes a novel complexity index of FSs, derived from TAALES indices (Kyle et al., 2018), and monolinguals’ judgements of the transparency of each FS and their complexity. The analysis of fluency of FSs is based on a study of the pauses before and after each FSs, while accuracy of FSs examination focuses on errors and error-free chunks within FSs. Results from hierarchical regression analysis indicate that working memory was significantly associated with the complexity of overall speech, aligning with recent studies (Awwad & Tavakoli, 2022). This suggests that learners with higher working memory capacity (WMC) can store and retain more complex speech compared to those with lower WMC. However, no significant associations were found between learners’ working memory and CAF of FSs, suggesting that for learners with lower working memory, the use of FSs serves as a compensatory strategy to overcome the challenges linked with limited WMC. These findings highlight the strategic role of FSs in enhancing speech production, addressing complexities in language use, accuracy and fluency. Interestingly, scores from the vocabulary test showed a less significant correlation with both the CAF of speech and CAF of FSs elicited via speech samples. This finding suggests several implications, including that low-proficiency learners may compensate for limited vocabulary by relying more on FSs, given their prior exposure to these sequences Similarly, general proficiency test scores showed a moderately positive correlation with CAF-FSs. This highlights the importance of general proficiency in language learning, although with a potentially less pronounced impact on the utilisation and integration of FSs into spoken language. These findings are important as they highlight the importance of concentrating on FSs in language learning, especially for this groups of participants – beginners. Furthermore, while the study shows that scores from the test of familiarity of FSs significantly predict CAF of FSs scores derived from speech samples, the FS test derived from literature containing unfamiliar FSs had a weaker association with both CAF of entire speech and CAF of FSs in speech. This underscores the importance of prior exposure and familiarity with domain knowledge. It is argued that it may also be the case that the FS test derived from the literature was too advanced to accurately capture beginner learners’ knowledge or to establish an association, considering that the participants were mostly lower-proficiency learners, even though this test was not restricted to a specific language proficiency level; instead, it was advocated for use by all L2 learners. These findings have several significant implications for L2 research, educators and those interested in pedagogy. An important avenue for future research involves replicating this study with learners at higher proficiency levels to explore whether similar individual difference variables associate with CAF of speech and subsequently CAF of FSs. Additionally, investigating whether scores from test of familiarity of FSs maintain their explanatory power for CAF of FSs, compared to more general FS tests, would provide insights into the dynamics of language production across proficiency levels.