‘Alone on the road’: loneliness among digital nomads and the use of social media to foster personal relationshipsMiguel, C., Lutz, C., Perez Vega, R. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1619-317X and Majetić, F. (2024) ‘Alone on the road’: loneliness among digital nomads and the use of social media to foster personal relationships. Media, Culture & Society. ISSN 1460-3675 (In Press)
It is advisable to refer to the publisher's version if you intend to cite from this work. See Guidance on citing. Abstract/SummaryThe ‘digital nomad’ (DN) neotribe includes professionals who work remotely from different locations. Despite the benefits of digital nomadism (e.g., work flexibility, high mobility, leisure-centeredness) and opportunities for meeting like-minded people, one of the consequences of the lifestyle may be loneliness. By using 30 in-depth interviews, this study explores the interaction between digital nomadism and loneliness. We conceptualize the DN lifestyle as a continuum that may, but does not have to, lead to feelings of loneliness. External factors such as lack of social support, often related to the capacity to stay in a place long enough to build a network or the social competence skills to connect with others, may contribute to greater levels of loneliness. Conversely, in line with networked individualism, it examines how DNs seek more control over constructing their own social networks in the context of a hyperindividualistic society. Instagram, Facebook groups, Slack, MeetUp, CouchSurfing, and Tinder are identified as key platforms for DNs to connect with people, especially for bridging social capital, whereas WhatsApp is used more for bonding social capital. The paper offers a timely discussion of the way that DNs use different social media platforms to overcome loneliness, forge intimate connections, and build community.
DownloadsDownloads per month over past year
Abbasian S (2019) Solo travellers to city destinations: an exploratory study in Sweden. International Journal of Tourism Cities 5(1): 35–50.
Abdellaoui A, Chen HY, Willemsen G., et al. (2019) Associations between loneliness and personality are mostly driven by a genetic association with neuroticism. Journal of Personality 87(2): 386–397.
Andino-Frydman A (2023) Who is a digital nomad? The evolving identities of the new nomadic workforce. In: Delbridge R, Helfen M, Pekarek A, et al. (eds) Ethnographies of Work. Bingley: Emerald, 35, pp. 95–137.
Aichner T, Grünfelder M, Maurer O, et al. (2021) Twenty-five years of social media: a review of social media applications and definitions from 1994 to 2019. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking 24(4): 215–222.
Allo N /2019, January 28) Community vs. Hyper-Individualism and the Challenge for Digital Engagement. [Post]. LinkedIn. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/community-vs-hyper-individualism-challenge- digital-engagement-allo/
Aufschnaiter C, Schwarz S, Hemetsberger A (2021) Anchors on the move: Digital nomads’ solid footholds in liquidity. In: Williams Bradford T, Keinan A, Thomson M (eds) Advances in Consumer Research (Vol. 49). Association for Consumer Research, pp. 27–31. Available at: https://www.acrwebsite.org/volumes/v49/acr_vol49_3000231.pdf
Azariah DR (2016) The traveler as author: Examining self-presentation and discourse in the (self) published travel blog. Media, Culture & Society 38(6): 934–945.
Badcock JC, Adery LH and Park S (2020) Loneliness in psychosis: A practical review and critique for clinicians. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice 27(4): e12345.
Bauman Z (2000) Liquid Modernity. London: John Wiley & Sons.
Becker, W. J., Belkin, L. Y., Tuskey, S. E., & Conroy, S. A. (2022). Surviving remotely: How job control and loneliness during a forced shift to remote work impacted employee work behaviors and well‐being. Human Resource Management, 61(4), 449-464.
Boivin M, Hymel S and Bukowski WM (1995) The roles of social withdrawal, peer rejection, and victimization by peers in predicting loneliness and depressed mood in childhood. Development and Psychopathology 7(4): 765–785.
Bonneau C, Aroles J and Estagnasié C (2023) Romanticisation and monetisation of the digital nomad lifestyle: The role played by online narratives in shaping professional identity work. Organization 30(1): 65–88.
Bourdieu P (1986) The forms of capital. In: Richardson J (ed) Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education. Westport, CT: Greenwood, pp. 241–258.
Boss L, Kang DH and Branson S (2015) Loneliness and cognitive function in the older adult: a systematic review. International Psychogeriatrics 27(4): 541–553.
Braun V and Clarke V (2006) Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology
3(2): 77–101.
Bryman A (2016) Social Research Methods. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cacioppo JT, Fowler JH and Christakis NA (2009) Alone in the crowd: The structure and spread of loneliness in a large social network. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 97(6), 977–991.
Caligiuri P and Lazarova, M (2002) A model for the influence of social interaction and social support on female expatriates' cross-cultural adjustment. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 13(5), 761-772.
Chevtaeva E and Denizci-Guillet, B. (2021) Digital nomads’ lifestyles and coworkation. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management 21: 100633.
Chua V (2013) Contextualizing ‘networked individualism’: The interplay of social categories, role relationships and tasks. Current Sociology 61(5-6): 602–625.
Cook D (2023) What is a digital nomad? Definition and taxonomy in the era of mainstream remote work.
World Leisure Journal 65(2): 256–275.
De Almeida MA, Correia A, Schneider D, et al. (2021) COVID-19 as opportunity to test digital nomad lifestyle. In: 2021 IEEE 24th International Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work in Design (CSCWD), Dalian, China, 5-7 May 2023, pp. 1209-1214. IEEE.
De Loryn B (2022) Not necessarily a place: How mobile transnational online workers (digital nomads) construct and experience ‘home.’ Global Networks 22(1): 103–118.
Deckx L, Van Den Akker M, Buntinx F, et al. (2018) A systematic literature review on the association
between loneliness and coping strategies. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 23(8), 899–916.
Djundeva M and Ellwardt L (2020) Social support networks and loneliness of Polish migrants in the Netherlands. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 46(7): 12811300.
Ermer AE, Segel-Karpas D and Benson JJ (2020) Loneliness trajectories and correlates of social connections among older adult married couples. Journal of Family Psychology 34(8): 1014–1024.
Erzen E and Çikrikci Ö (2018) The effect of loneliness on depression: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Social Psychiatry 64(5): 427-435.
Etikan I, Musa SA and Alkassim RS (2016) Comparison of convenience sampling and purposive sampling.
American Journal of Theoretical and Applied Statistics 5(1): 1–4.
Goossens L (2012) Genes, environments, and interactions as a new challenge for European developmental psychology: The sample case of adolescent loneliness. European Journal of Developmental Psychology 9(4): 432–445.
Gregersen, E.M., Astrupgaard, S.L., Jespersen, M.H., Gårdhus, T.P. and Albris, K., 2023. Digital dependence: Online fatigue and coping strategies during the COVID-19 lockdown. Media, Culture & Society, p.01634437231154781.
Hannonen O (2020) In search of a digital nomad: defining the phenomenon. Information Technology & Tourism 22(3): 335–353.
Hardy A and Robards B (2015) The ties that bind: Exploring the relevance of neotribal theory to tourism.
Tourism Analysis 20(4): 443–454.
Hawkley LC and Cacioppo JT (2010) Loneliness matters: A theoretical and empirical review of consequences and mechanisms. Annals of Behavioral Medicine 40(2): 218–227.
Hemberg J, Östman L, Korzhina Y, et al. (2022) Loneliness as experienced by adolescents and young adults: an explorative qualitative study. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth 27(1): 362– 384.
Heimtun B and Abelsen B (2013) Singles and solo travel: Gender and type of holiday. Tourism Culture & Communication 13(3): 161–174.
Hermann I and Paris CM (2020) Digital nomadism: the nexus of remote working and travel mobility.
Information Technology & Tourism 22: 329–334.
Hunt MG, Marx R, Lipson C, et al. (2018) No more FOMO: Limiting social media decreases loneliness and depression. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 37(10): 751–768.
James D, Condie JM and Lean GL (2019) Travel, Tinder and gender in digitally mediated tourism encounters. In: Nash CJ and Gorman-Murray A (eds) The Geographies of Digital Sexuality. Singapore: Springer, pp. 49–68.
Johnston K, Tanner M, Lalla N, et al. (2010) Social capital: The benefit of Facebook ‘friends.’ Behavior and Information Technology 32: 24–36.
Jones AC, Schinka KC, Van Dulmen MH, et al. (2011) Changes in loneliness during middle childhood predict risk for adolescent suicidality indirectly through mental health problems. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology 40(6): 818–824.
Lacárcel F J S, Huete R, and Zerva K 2024. Decoding digital nomad destination decisions through user- generated content. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 200, 123098.
Lee A, Toombs AL, Erickson I, et al. (2019) The social infrastructure of co-spaces: Home, work, and sociable places for digital nomads. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction 3(CSCW): 1–3.
Leith C (2020) An exploratory study of links between individuals’ perceptions of solo tourism and their desires for social interaction and solitude. In: International Conference on Tourism Research, Valencia, Spain, 27-28 March 2020, pp. 132–138. Academic Conferences International Limited.
Liebke L, Bungert M, Thome J, et al. (2017) Loneliness, social networks, and social functioning in borderline personality disorder. Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment 8(4): 349– 356.
Long CR and Averill JR (2003) Solitude: An exploration of benefits of being alone. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour 33(1): 21–44.
Madianou M and Miller D (2013) Polymedia: Towards a new theory of digital media in interpersonal communication. International Journal of Cultural Studies 16(2): 169–187.
Maffesoli M (1996) The Time of the Tribes. London: SAGE.
Mancinelli F (2020) Digital nomads: freedom, responsibility and the neoliberal order. Information Technology & Tourism, 22(3): 417–437.
Marangoni C and Ickes W (1989). Loneliness: A theoretical review with implications for measurement.
Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 6(1), 93-128.
Margalit M (2010) Lonely children and adolescents: Self-perceptions, social exclusion, and hope. London: Springer.
Matos P and Ardèvol E (2021) The potentiality to move: Mobility and future in digital nomads’ practices.
Transfers 11(3): 62–79.
Miguel C (2018) Meeting people online. In: Personal Relationships and Intimacy in the Age of Social Media. London: Palgrave Pivot, pp. 103–123.
Miguel C, Lutz C, Majetić F, et al. (2023a) ‘It's not all shiny and glamorous’: Loneliness and fear of missing out among digital nomads. In: Proceedings of the 2023 Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, Maui, HI, 3-6 January 2023, pp. 4628–4637. University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa.
Miguel C, Lutz C, Majetić F, et al. (2023b) Working from paradise? An analysis of the representation of digital nomads’ values and lifestyle on Instagram. New Media & Society. Epub ahead of print 27 October 2023. DOI: 10.1177/14614448231205892.
Miguel C and Medina P (2011) The transformation of identity and privacy through online social networks (The couchsurfing case). In Proceedings from the McLuhan Galaxy Conference: Understanding Media Today: Barcelona, May, 23-25, pp. 306-318.
Nash C, Jarrahi MH, Sutherland W, et al. (2018) Digital nomads beyond the buzzword: Defining digital nomadic work and use of digital technologies. In: Chowdhury G, McLeod J, Gillet V, et al. (eds) Transforming Digital Worlds. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. London: Springer, pp. 207–217.
Naughton-Doe R, Barke J, Manchester H, et al. (2022) Ethical issues when interviewing older people about loneliness: Reflections and recommendations for an effective methodological approach. Ageing & Society. Epub ahead of print 1 September 2022. DOI: 10.1017/S0144686X2200099X.
Neluhena M, Chandralal L and Dahanayake T (2023) Female solo travels to south Asian destinations and sustaining loneliness. Tourism and Hospitality Research. Epub ahead of print 4 May 2023. DOI: 10.1177/14673584231173508.
Orben A and Przybylski AK (2019) Screens, teens, and psychological well-being: Evidence from three time-use-diary studies. Psychological Science 30(5): 682–696.
Orben A, Dienlin T and Przybylski AK (2019) Social media’s enduring effect on adolescent life satisfaction. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116(21): 10226–10228.
Orel M (2023) Wanderlust workforce: a journey into understanding digital nomadism. World Leisure Journal 65(2): 143–149.
Peplau LA and Perlman D (1979) Blueprint for a social psychological theory of loneliness. In: Cook M and Wilson GD (eds) Love and Attraction: An interpersonal Conference. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 101– 110.
Phua J, Jin SV and Kim JJ (2017) Uses and gratifications of social networking sites for bridging and bonding social capital: A comparison of Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and Snapchat. Computers in Human Behavior 72: 115-122.
Pittman M (2018) Happiness, loneliness, and social media: perceived intimacy mediates the emotional benefits of platform use. The Journal of Social Media in Society 7(2): 1641–176.
Prabawa IWSW and Pertiwi PR (2020) The digital nomad tourist motivation in Bali: Exploratory research based on push and pull theory. Athens Journal of Tourism 7(3): 61–174.
Poecze F and Strauss C (2020) Social capital on social media—concepts, measurement techniques and trends in operationalization. Information 11(11): 515.
Putnam R (2001) Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Rainie H and Wellman B (2012) Networked: the new social operating system. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Requena F and Ayuso L (2019) Individualism or complementarity? The effect of digital personal networks on face-to-face personal networks. Information, Communication & Society 22(14): 2097–2111.
Russell DW, Cutrona CE, McRae C, et al. (2012) Is loneliness the same as being alone? The Journal of Psychology 146(1-2): 7–22.
Sakız H, Mert A and Sarıçam H (2021) Self-esteem and perceived social competence protect adolescent students against ostracism and loneliness. Journal of Psychologists and Counsellors in Schools 31(1): 94–109.
Salway S, Such E, Preston L., Booth A, Zubair M, Victor C, and Raghavan R (2020) Reducing loneliness among migrant and ethnic minority people: a participatory evidence synthesis. Public Health Research 8(10): 1–246.
Saunders B, Kitzinger J and Kitzinger C (2015) Anonymising interview data: Challenges and compromise in practice. Qualitative Research 15(5): 616–632.
Sessions LF (2010) How offline gatherings affect online communities. When virtual community members ‘meetup.’ Information, Communication and Society 13(3): 375–395.
Šímová T (2023) A research framework for digital nomadism: a bibliometric study. World Leisure Journal
65(2): 175–191.
Shen C and Cage C (2013) Exodus to the real world? Assessing the impact of offline meetups on community participation and social capital. New Media and Society 17(3): 394–414.
Shane-Simpson C, Manago A, Gaggi N, et al. (2018) Why do college students prefer Facebook, Twitter, or Instagram? Site affordances, tensions between privacy and self-expression, and implications for social capital. Computers in Human Behavior 86: 276–288.
Shrum LJ, Fumagalli E and Lowrey TM (2023) Coping with loneliness through consumption. Journal of Consumer Psychology 33(2): 441–465.
Sobré-Denton M (2016) Virtual intercultural bridgework: Social media, virtual cosmopolitanism, and activist community-building. New Media & Society 18(8): 1715–1731.
Somasiri S, Murray N and Dresler E (2022) Solo female travellers: solitude as a solo travel need and intrusive experiences in Asia. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research 27(11): 1127–1143.
Stravynski A and Boyer R (2001) Loneliness in relation to suicide ideation and parasuicide: A population- wide study. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior 31(1): 32–40.
Tan J, Ai Y, Wen X, et al. (2016) Relationship between shyness and loneliness among Chinese adolescents: social support as mediator. Social Behavior and Personality 44(2): 201–208.
Thompson BY (2019) The digital nomad lifestyle: (Remote) work/leisure balance, privilege, and constructed community. International Journal of the Sociology of Leisure 2(1): 27–42.
Thompson BY (2021). Digital Nomads Living on the Margins: Remote-Working Laptop Entrepreneurs in the Gig Economy. Bingley: Emerald.
Turkle S (2011) Alone together: Why we expect more from technology and less from each other. New York: Basic Books.
Uy-Tioco CS (2022) Glocal intimacies, digital media and the transnational lives of elite Filipino migrants during a global pandemic. In: Kim Y (ed) Media in Asia (pp. 333-347). London: Routledge.
Vanhalst J, Luyckx K and Goossens L (2014) Experiencing loneliness in adolescence: A matter of individual characteristics, negative peer experiences, or both? Social Development 23(1): 100–118.
Walz T, Kensbock JM, De Jong SB, et al. (2023) Lonely@work@home? The impact of work/home demands and support on workplace loneliness during remote work. European Management Journal. Epub ahead of print 6 May 2023. DOI: 10.1016/j.emj.2023.05.001.
Wang, B., Schlagwein, D., Cecez‑Kecmanovic, D., & Cahalane, M. C. (2024). ‘Emancipation’ in digital nomadism vs in the nation‑state: A comparative analysis of idealtypes. Journal of Business Ethics. Epub ahead of print 27 June 2024. DOI: 10.1007/s10551-024-05699-8.
Weiss RS (1973) Loneliness: The Experience of Emotional and Social Isolation. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Rainie H and Wellman B (2012) Networked: The New Social Operating System. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Williams D (2006) On and off the ‘net: Scales for social capital in an online era. Journal of Computer- Mediated Communication 11(2): 593–628.
Wilson E and Little D E (2005) A “relative escape”? The impact of constraints on women who travel solo.
Tourism Review International 9(2): 155–175.
Woldoff RA and Litchfield RC (2021) Digital Nomads: In Search of Freedom, Community, and Meaningful Work in the New Economy. Oxford: Oxford University Pres.
Xiao Y and Lutz C (2024) Wayfarers in cyberspace: A temporal investigation of digital nomads based on liquid modernity theory. Journal of Travel Research. Epub ahead of print 5 February 2024. DOI: 10.1177/00472875231224242.
Yang E C L (2021) What motivates and hinders people from travelling alone? A study of solo and non-solo travellers. Current Issues in Tourism 24(17): 2458–2471. University Staff: Request a correction | Centaur Editors: Update this record |