Action learning: how learning transfers from entrepreneurs to small firms
Jones, K.
It is advisable to refer to the publisher's version if you intend to cite from this work. See Guidance on citing. To link to this item DOI: 10.1080/14767333.2014.896249 Abstract/SummaryThe paper presents research with small and medium enterprise (SME) owners who have participated in a leadership development programme. The primary focus of the paper is on learning transfer and factors affecting it, arguing that entrepreneurs must engage in ‘action’ in order to ‘learn’ and that under certain conditions they may transfer learning to their firm. The paper draws on data from 19 focus groups undertaken from 2010 to 2012, involving 51 participants in the LEAD Wales programme. It considers the literatures exploring learning transfer and develops a conceptual framework, outlining four areas of focus for entrepreneurial learning. Utilising thematic analysis, it describes and evaluates what (actual facts and information) and how (techniques, styles of learning) participants transfer and what actions they take to improve the business and develop their people. The paper illustrates the complex mechanisms involved in this process and concludes that action learning is a method of facilitating entrepreneurial learning which is able to help address some of the problems of engagement, relevance and value that have been highlighted previously. The paper concludes that the efficacy of an entrepreneurial learning intervention in SMEs may depend on the effectiveness of learning transfer.
DownloadsDownloads per month over past year
• Abell, D. 1978. “Strategic Windows.” Journal of Marketing 42 (3): 21-26. doi:10.2307/1250529.
• Anderson, V. and Skinner, D. 1999. “Organizational learning in practice: How do small businesses learn to operate internationally?” Human Resource Development International 2 (3): 235-258. doi: 10.1080/13678869900000025.
• Armstrong, D., A. Gosling, J.Weinman, and T. Marteau. 1997. “The Place of Inter-Rater Reliability in Qualitative Research: An Empirical Study.” Sociology 31 (3): 597-606. doi: 10.1177/0038038597031003015.
• Baldwin, T. T, and Ford, J. K. 1988. “Transfer of Training: A review of the literature and directions for future research.” Personnel Psychology 41: 63-105. doi: 0.1111/j.1744-6570.1988.tb00632.x.
• Bandura, A. 1977. Social Learning Theory, Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
• Bandura, A. 1986. Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
• Baker, M., Andriessen, J. and Järvelä S. 2013. “Affective Learning Together: Social and emotional dimensions of collaborative learning (New Perspectives on Learning).” Abington, Oxon: Routledge.
• Bloor, M., S. Frankland, M.Thomas, and K. Robson. 2001. “Focus Groups in Social Research.” London: Sage.
• Blume, B. D., Ford, J. K., Baldwin, T. T. and Huang, J. L. 2010. “Transfer of training: a meta-analytic review.” Journal of Management 39: 1065–105. doi: 10.1177/0149206309352880.
• Boud, D., R. Keogh, and D. Walker. 1985. “What is Reflection in Learning?” In Using Experience for Learning, edited by D. Boud, R. Keogh, and D. Walker, 7-17. London: Kogan.
• Boyatzis, R. 1998. Transforming Qualitative Information: Thematic Analysis and Code Development, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
• Broad, M. L. 1997. “Transfer Concepts and Research Overview.” Chap. 1 in Transferring Learning to the Workplace, edited by Jack J Phillips. Alexandria, VA: American Society for Training and Development.
• Bryman, A. 2004. Social Research Methods. New York: Oxford University Press Inc.
• Burke, L. A. and Hutchins, H. M. 2007. “Training transfer: an integrative literature review”, Human Resource Development Review 6: 263–96. doi: 10.1177/1534484307303035.
• Cho, Y., and Egan, T. M. 2009. “Action Learning Research: A Systematic Review and Conceptual Framework.” Human Resource Development 8 (4): 431-462. doi: 10.1177/1534484309345656.
• Clarke, J., R. Thorpe, L. Anderson, and J. Gold. 2006. “It’s all Action, it’s all Learning: action learning in SMEs.” Journal of European Industrial Training 30 (6): 441-455. doi: 10.1108/03090590610688825.
• Colquitt, J. A., Lepine, J. A. and Noe, R. A. 2000. “Toward and integrative of training motivation: A meta-analytic path analysis of 20 years of research.” Journal of Applied Psychology 85: 678-707. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.85.5.678.
• Cope, J. 2003. “Entrepreneurial Learning and Critical Reflection: Discontinuous events as triggers for ‘higher-level’ learning.” Management Learning 34 (4): 429-450. doi: 10.1177/1350507603039067.
• Cope, J. 2005. “Toward a Dynamic Learning Perspective of Entrepreneurship.” Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice 29 (4): 373-397. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-6520.2005.00090.x.
• Cope, J. 2010. “Entrepreneurial Learning from Failure: An interpretative phenomenological analysis.” Journal of Business Venturing 26 (6): 604-623. doi: 10.1016/j.jbusvent.2010.06.002.
• Cope, J. and G. Watts. 2000. “Learning by Doing: an exploration of experience, critical incidents and reflection in entrepreneurial learning.” International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour and Research 6(3): 104-124. doi: 10.1108/13552550010346208.
• Cuncliffe, A. L. 2004. “On Becoming a Reflexive Practitioner.” Journal of Management Education 28 (4): 407-426. doi:10.1177/1052562904264440.
• Dalley, J. and Hamilton, B. 2000. “Knowledge, context and learning in the small business.” International Small Business Journal 18 (3), 51-59. doi: 10.1177/0266242600183003
• Deakins, D. 1996. Entrepreneurship and Small Firms. London: McGraw-Hill.
• Deakins, D. and M. Freel. 1998. “Entrepreneurial Learning and the Growth Process in SMEs.” The Learning Organisation 5 (3): 144-155. doi:10.1108/09696479810223428.
• De-Fillipi, R. J. 2001. “Introduction: Project-based Learning, Reflective Practices and Learning Outcomes.” Management Learning 32 (1): 5-10. doi: 10.1177/1350507601321001.
• Detteman, D. K. 1993. “The Case for Prosecution: Transfer and Epiphenomenona.” In Transfer on Trial: Intelligence, Cognition and Instruction Norwood, edited by D. K. Detterman and R. J. Sternberg, 1-23. NJ: Ablex.
• Devins, D. and J. Gold. 2000. “Cracking the Tough Nuts: mentoring and coaching the managers of small firms.” Career Development International 5 (4): 250-255. doi: 10.1108/EUM0000000005363.
• Edmondson A.C. 1999. “Psychological Safety and Learning Behaviour in Work Teams”. Administrative Science Quarterly 44 (2): 350 –383. doi: 10.2307/2666999.
• Facteau, J. D., Dobbins, G. H., Russell, J. E. A., Ladd, R. T., and Kudishch, J. D. 1995. “The Influence of General Perceptions of the Training Environment on Pretraining Motivation and Perceived Training Transfer.” Journal of Management 21: 1-25. doi: 10.1177/014920639502100101.
• Foley, J. M. and Kaiser, L. M. R. 2013. “Learning Transfer and Its Intentionality in Adult and Continuing Education.” New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education 137: 5–15. doi: 10.1002/ace.20040.
• Fraziz, H., Gittleman, M. and Joyce, M. 2000. “Correlates of Training: an analysis using both employer and employee characteristics.” Industrial and Labour Relations Review 53, 443-462.Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2695968.
• Gartner, W. B., Bird, B. J., and Starr, J. A. 1992. “Acting as if: Differentiating Entrepreneurial from Organizational Behaviour.” Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice 16 (3): 13-32.
• Gibb, A. 1997. “Small Firms’ Training and Competitiveness. Building upon Small business as a Learning Organisation.” International Small Business Journal 15 (3): 13-29. doi: 10.1177/0266242697153001.
• Gibb, A. 2002. “In pursuit of a New ‘Enterprise’ and ‘Entrepreneurship’ Paradigm for Learning: creative destruction, new values, new ways of doing things and new combinations of knowledge.” International Journal of Management Reviews 4 (3): 233-269. doi:10.1111/1468-2370.00086.
• Gibb, A. 2009. “Meeting the Development needs of Owner Managed Small Enterprise: a discussion of the centrality of action learning.” Action Learning: Research and Practice 6 (3): 209-227. doi: 10.1080/14767330903299415.
• Gibb, A. and J. Ritchie. 1982. “Understanding the Process of starting Small businesses.” European Small Business Journal 1(1): 26-45. doi: 10.1177/026624268200100102.
• Gilpin-Jackson Y. and Bushe, G.R. 2007. “Leadership development training transfer: a case study of post-training determinants.” Journal of Management Development 26(10): 980-1002. doi: 10.1108/02621710710833423.
• Gold, J. and Thorpe, R. 2010. “Leadership and Management Development in Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises: SME Worlds.” In Gower Handbook of Leadership and Management Development, edited by Gold, J., Thorpe, R. and A. Mumford, Chap. 8, 133-150. Surrey: Gower Publishing Limited.
• Henley, A. and H. Norbury. 2011. “An Intervention in raise Leadership Effectiveness among SME Owner-managers in Wales.” Entrepreneurship and Innovation 12 (4): 221-233. doi: 10.5367/ijei.2011.0048.
• Harvey, M. and R. Evans.1995. “Strategic Windows in the Entrepreneurial Process.” Journal of Business Venturing 10 (5): 331-347. doi: 10.1016/0883-9026(95)00037-9
• Hicks, M. D., and Peterson, D. E. 1999. “The development pipeline: How people really learn.” Knowledge Management Review 9: 30-33.
• Hines, T., and R. Thorpe. 1995. “New Approaches to Understanding Small firm Networks – the key to performance, managerial learning and development.” Paper presented at the 18th ISBA National Small Firms Policy and Research Conference, Paisley, November15-17.
• Holman, D., Pavlica, K., and Thorpe, R. 1997. “Rethinking Kolb's theory of experiential learning in management education.” Management Learning 28 (2): 135-148. doi: 10.1177/1350507697282003.
• Holton, E.F. III. 1996. “The flawed four-level evaluation model.” Human Resource Development Quarterly 7 (1): 5-21. doi: 10.1002/hrdq.3920070103.
• Inglis, S. 1994. “Making the Most of Action Learning.” Hampshire: Gower.
• Ingram, H., Biermann, J., Cannon, J., Neil. J. and Waddle, C. 2000. “Internalising Action Learning: a company perspective.” International Journal of Hospitality Management, 12 (2): 107-114. doi: 10.1108/09596110010307369.
• Johnson, C. 1998. “The Essential principles of Action Learning.” Journal of Workplace Learning 10 (6/7): 296-300. doi: 10.1108/13665629810236219.
• Jones, O., A. Macpherson, and R.Thorpe. 2010. “Learning in Owner-managed Small firms: mediating artefacts and strategic space.” Entrepreneurship and Regional Development 22 (7): 649-673. doi: 10.1080/08985620903171368.
• Jones, K., A. Henley, S. Sambrook, and H. Norbury. 2013. “Learning to LEAD for Business Growth – Implications for Supporting SMEs in Wales.” Contemporary Wales, 26, 1-23. ISBN: 978-0-7083-2683-1.
• Kempster, S. 2009. How Managers Have Learned to LEAD: Exploring the Development of Leadership Practice. London: Palgrave Macmillian.
• Kempster, S., J. Cope, and K. Parry. 2010. “Dimensions of distributed leadership in the SME context.” Working Paper 10–01. Glasgow: Hunter Centre for Entrepreneurship and University of Strathclyde.
• Kempster, S., and G. Watts. 2002. “The Entrepreneur as Leader: an exploration of leadership development amongst small business owner managers.” Paper presented at the 25th ISBA National Small Firms Conference, Brighton, November 13-15.
• Kerr, R., J. Gavin, N. Heaton, and E. Boyle. 2005. “Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Effectiveness”, Leadership and Organization Development Journal 27 (4): 265-279. doi: 10.1108/01437730610666028.
• Kirwan, C. 2009. Improving Learning Transfer. Farnham: Gower Publishing Limited.
• Kitzinger, J. 1994. “The Methodology of Focus Groups: the importance of interaction between research participants.” Sociology of Health and Illness 16 (1): 103-21. doi: 10.1111/1467-9566.ep11347023.
• Kraiger, K. 2003. “Perspectives on Training and Development. Handbook of Psychology.” Industrial and Organizational Psychology 1: 171–92. doi: 10. 1002/0471264385.wei1208.
• Leonard, H. K., and Lang, F. 2010. “Action Learning for Leadership Development.” Advances in Human Resources 12(2) 225–240. doi: 10.1177/1523422310367800.
• Leitch, C.M., and R.T. Harrison. 2005. “Entrepreneurial Learning: researching the interface between learning and the entrepreneurial context.” Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice 9 (2): 351–71. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-6520.2005.00089.x.
• Leitch, C. M., C. McMullan, and R. T. Harrison. 2009. “Leadership Development in SMEs: an action learning approach.” Action Learning: Research and Practice 6 (3): 243-263. doi: 10.1080/14767330903299464.
• Lincoln, Y.S., and E.G. Guba .1985. Naturalistic Inquiry. London: Sage Publications, Inc.
• Martin, P.Y. and B. Turner.1986. “Grounded Theory and Organizational Research.” The Journal of Applied Behavioural Science 22 (2): 141-157. doi: 10.1177/002188638602200207.
• Mathieu, J. E., Tannenbaum, S. I. and Salas,E. 1992. “Influences of Individual and Situational Characteristics on Measures of Training Effectiveness.” Academy of Management Journal 35, 4, 828-847. doi: 10.2307/256317.
• Merriam, S. B. and Leahy, B. L. 2005. “Learning Transfer: a review of the research in adult education and training.” PAACE Journal of Lifelong Learning 14: 1-24.
• McGill I. and Beaty, L. 2001. Action Learning. London and New York: RoutledgeFalmer.
• McNeill, T., Lawson, J. and Mulhaney, A. 2012. “SME Learning Sets – What do Participants Value in One Another?” Paper presented at the 35th Annual Institute of Small Business and Entrepreneurship (ISBE) Conference, Dublin, November 2012.
• Mezirow, J. 1990. Fostering Critical Reflection in Adulthood. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
• Mezirow, J. 1991. Transformative Dimensions of Adult Learning. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
• Minniti, M. and W. Bygrave. 2001. “A Dynamic Model of Entrepreneurial Learning.” Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice 25(3): 5-16. doi: 1042-2587-01-251.
• Pedler, M. 1997. “Interpreting Action Learning.” In Management Learning; Integrating Perspectives in Theory and Practice, edited by J.Burgoyne and M.Reynolds 248-264. Sage: London.
• Pedler, M. 2008. Action Learning for Managers, Padstow, Cornwall: TJ International Ltd.
• Penn, D.W., Ang'wa, W., Forster, R., Heydon, G., and Richardson, S.J. 1998. “Learning in smaller organizations.” The Learning Organisation 5(3), 128-137. doi: 10.1108/09696479810223400
• Perren, L. and Grant, J. 2001. “Management and Leadership in UK SMEs.” London: Council for Excellence in Management and Leadership.
• Peters, S. 2010. “Where does the learning take place? Learning spaces in the situated curriculum within networked learning.” Edited by L. Dirckinck-Holmfeld, V. Hodgson, C. Jones, M. de Laat, D. McConnell, and T. Ryberg. Paper presented at the 7th International Conference on Networked Learning, Aalborg, Denmark, May 3-4.
• Pittaway, L. and J. Cope. 2007. “Simulating Entrepreneurial Learning: Assessing the Utility of Experiential Learning Designs.” Management Learning. 38 (2): 211-233. doi: 10.1177/1350507607075776.
• Pittaway, L., C. Missing, N. Hudson, and D. Maragh. 2009. “Entrepreneurial Learning through Action: A case study of the six-squared program.” Action Learning: Research and Practice 6 (3): 265–88. doi: 10.1080/14767330903299480.
• Pittaway, L., and R. Thorpe. 2012. “A Framework for Entrepreneurial Learning: A tribute to Jason Cope.” Entrepreneurship and Regional Development 24 (9-10): 837-859. doi: 10.1080/08985626.2012.694268.
• Ram, M., and K. Trehan. 2010. “Critical Action Learning, Policy, Small Firms and Learning: an inquiry.” Management Learning 41(4): 415–428. doi: 10.1177/1350507609349155.
• Rae, D. 2000. “Understanding Entrepreneurial Learning: A question of how?” International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour and Research 6 (3): 145-159. doi: 10.1108/13552550010346497.
• Rae, D., and M. Carswell. 2001. “Towards a Conceptual Understanding of Entrepreneurial Learning.” Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development 8 (2):150–158. doi: 10.1108/EUM0000000006816.
• Reuber, A.R. and E.M. Fischer. 1999. “Understanding the Consequence of Founders’ Experience.” Journal of Small Business Management 37 (2): 30-45. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1505887.
• Revans, R. W. 1980. Action Learning: New Techniques for Management. London: Blond and Briggs.
• Revans, R.W. 1993. “Action Learning; its terms and character.” Management Decision 21 (1): 39-50. doi: 10.1108/eb001310.
• Reynolds, M. 2011. “Reflective Practice: origins and Interpretations.” Action Learning, Research and Practice 8 (1): 5–13. doi: 10.1080/14767333.2011.549321.
• Rigg, C. 2005. “It’s in the way they talk.” International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour and Research 11 (1): 58-75. doi: 10.1108/13552550510580843.
• Rigg, C., and Trehan, K. 2002. “Do they or don’t they? A Comparison of Traditional and Discourse Perspectives in HRD in SMEs.” Education and Training 44, (8/9): 388-397. doi: 10.1108/00400910210449222.
• Rouiller, J. Z. and Goldstein, I. L. 1993. “The relationship between organizational transfer climate and positive transfer of training.” Human Resources Development Quarterly 4, 377–90. doi: 10.1002/hrdq.3920040408.
• Saks, A. M. and Belcourt, M. 2006. “An investigation of training activities and transfer of training in organisations.” Human Resource Management 45, 629–48. doi: 10.1002/hrm.20135.
• Schein, E.H. and W. Bennis. 1965. Personal and Organizational Change through Group Methods. New York: Wiley.
• Sexton, D.L., N.B. Upton, L.E. Wacholtz, and P.P. McDougall. 1997. “Learning needs of Growth-oriented Entrepreneurs.” Journal of Business Venturing 12(1): 1-8. doi: 10.1016/S0883-9026(96)00037-7.
• Smilor, R.W. 1997. “Entrepreneurship: Reflections on a Subversive Activity.” Journal of Business Venturing 12(5): 341-346. doi: 10.1016/S0883-9026(97)00008-6.
• Smith, L. and Peters, S. 2006. Leading by Design: The case of LEAD. Paper presented at Symposium Entrepreneurial Leadership Learning, British Academy Management, Belfast, September 12-14.
• Smith, S. 2011. “SME leaders’ learning in networked learning: an actor-network theory and communities of practice theory-informed analysis.” Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Lancaster.
• Smith, S. 2012. “Reconceptualising Space in Networked Learning.” Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Networked Learning, 2-4 April 2012. Edited by V. Hodgson, C. Jones, M. de Laat, D. McConnell, T. Ryberg, and P. Sloep. ISBN 978-1-86220-283-2.
• Stanworth, J. and C. Gray, 1991. Bolton 20 years on: The Small Firm in the 1990s. London: Small Business Research Trust.
• Stewart, J.A. 2009. “Evaluation of an Action Learning Programme for Leadership Development of SME Leaders in the UK.” Action Learning: Research and Practice 6 (2): 131-148. doi: 10.1080/14767330903006802.
• Storey, D.J. 1994. Understanding the Small Business Sector. London: International Thomson Business Press.
• Tannenbaum, S. I. and Yulk, G. 1992. “Training and Development in Work Organisations.” Annual Review of Psychology 43: 399-441. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ps.43.020192.002151.
• Taylor, D. W. and R. Thorpe. 2004. “Entrepreneurial Learning: a process of co-participation.” Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development 11(2): 203-211. doi: 10.1108/14626000410537146.
• Tell, J. 2000. “Learning Networks – a metaphor for inter-organizational development in SMEs”, Enterprise and Innovation Management Studies 1 (3): 303-317. doi: 10.1080/14632440010028302.
• Thomson, A., J. Storey, C. Mabey, C. Gray, E. Farmer, and R. Thomson. 1997. A Portrait of Management Development. London: Institute of Management/Open University.
• Thorpe, R., J. Cope, M. Ram, and M. Pedler. 2009. “Leadership Development in Small and Medium-sized Enterprises: The case for action learning.” Action Learning: Research and Practice 6 (3): 201–8. doi: 10.1080/14767330903299399.
• Tracey, J. Bruce; Tannenbaum, Scott I.; Kavanagh, Michael J. 2005. “Applying trained skills on the job: The importance of the work environment.” Journal of Applied Psychology 80, 2, 239-252. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.80.2.239.
• Velada, R., Caetano, A., Michel, J. W. Lyons, B. D. and Kavanagh, M. J. 2007. “The effects of training design, individual characteristics and work environment on transfer of training.” International Journal of Training and Development 11, 282–94. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2419.2007.00286.x.
• Vince, R. (2008) ‘‘Learning in-action and ‘Learning inaction’: advancing the theory and practice of critical action learning”, Action Learning Research and Practice, 5 (2): 93-104.
• Waddill, D. and Marquardt, M. (2011) “Adult Learning Theories and the Practice of Action Learning’ in Action Learning in Practice” edited by Mike Pedler, 415-427,Surrey: Gower.
• Waller, L. (2011) From the Classroom to the Workplace: enhancing the transfer of learning. Berkhamsted: Ashridge Business School.
• Waller, L. 2012. From the Classroom to the Workplace: enhancing the transfer of learning. Hertfordshire: Ashridge Business School.
• Westhead, P. and D. Storey. 1996. “Management Training and Small firm Performance: why is the link so weak?” International Small Business Journal 14 (4): 13-24. doi: 10.1177/0266242696144001.
• Wilkinson, S. 1998. “Focus Groups in Feminist Research: Power, Interaction, and the Co-Production of Meaning.” Women’s Studies International Forum 21 (1): 111-25. doi: 10.1016/S0277-5395(97)00080-0.
• Wilkinson, S. J. 1999. “Focus groups: A Feminist Method.” Psychology of Women Quarterly 23 (2): 221-244. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-6402.1999.tb00355.x.
• Woo, C.V., U. Daellenbach, and C. Nicholls-Nixon. 1994. “Theory Building in the Presence of “Randomness”: the case of venture creation and performance.” Journal of Management Studies 31(4): 507-524. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6486.1994.tb00628.x.
• Yanmill, S. and G. N. McLean. 2001. “Theories supporting transfer of learning.” Human Resource Development Quarterly 12(2): 195-208. doi: DOI: 10.1002/hrdq.7.
• Yin, R.K. 1989. Case Study Research – Design and Methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. University Staff: Request a correction | Centaur Editors: Update this record |