The influence of ambivalence, habits, perceived privacy, and trust on consumer data disclosure in online booking: a cross-cultural study

Widiana, H. (2026) The influence of ambivalence, habits, perceived privacy, and trust on consumer data disclosure in online booking: a cross-cultural study. PhD thesis, University of Reading. doi: 10.48683/1926.00128954

Abstract/Summary

The growing use of digital marketing has heightened concerns about privacy, particularly regarding the disclosure of personal data during online transactions. In online shopping, consumers are often required to provide personal information to access services offered by digital companies. At the same time, they worry that their data may be used by third parties for unrelated purposes without their consent. This behaviour reflects the so‑called privacy paradox, in which consumers express strong privacy concerns yet continue to share personal data in exchange for perceived benefits. This study, therefore, examines how consumers’ willingness to disclose (WTD) sensitive personal information when using online travel agencies (OTAs) is influenced by sociodemographic and psychological factors associated with the privacy paradox. To address this objective, both qualitative and quantitative data were used. Qualitative data were gathered through in‑depth interviews and focus groups. Participants for the interviews were recruited using a snowball sampling technique, while focus group participants were selected through an open recruitment process. Insights from these qualitative activities revealed that online booking decisions are shaped by several factors, including consumer ambivalence, trust, demographic characteristics, and concerns about the lack of transparency in personal data usage. Qualitative data were analysed using NVivo software. Findings from the qualitative phase informed the development of a contingent valuation survey administered in Indonesia and the UK to 493 and 489 participants, respectively. The survey included questions designed to assess how respondents’ sociodemographic characteristics, habits, online privacy literacy, concerns, and psychological factors—such as trust, perceived risks and benefits, and ambivalence—influence their willingness to disclose sensitive data when booking travel online. For respondents willing to disclose personal information, a contingent valuation scenario was used to estimate the price at which they were willing to pay (WTP) or willing to accept (WTA) compensation for releasing health‑related information. WTP and WTA values were elicited using the payment card and double‑bounded dichotomous choice techniques, respectively. WTD was estimated using 28 logistic regression, while WTP and WTA were analysed using Tobit and interval regression models. Results indicate that age and benefit–risk assessment positively influence WTD, whereas privacy concerns negatively affect it. Habits, expenditure, and booking frequency positively influence WTP. Education level and trust increase WTA, while age and technical familiarity reduce WTA. Cross‑cultural comparisons show that UK consumers exhibit stronger privacy concerns and higher WTP to protect personal data, whereas Indonesian consumers are more likely to accept discounts in exchange for data sharing, influenced by contextual trust and economic considerations. Overall, the findings highlight the importance of transparent data practices, enhanced consumer education, and trust‑building initiatives in e‑commerce. This study contributes to a deeper understanding of consumer privacy concerns and decision‑making in the digital economy, emphasising the complexities underlying online behaviour. Implications for marketers, policymakers, and online businesses are discussed, with a focus on strengthening privacy protection and fostering consumer trust to support sustainable e‑commerce growth. Future research should examine longitudinal behavioural patterns and the impact of emerging technologies on data‑sharing preferences across cultures.

Item Type	Thesis (PhD)
URI	https://centaur.reading.ac.uk/id/eprint/128954
Identification Number/DOI	10.48683/1926.00128954
Divisions	Life Sciences > School of Agriculture, Policy and Development
Date on Title Page	September 2025
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