Downloads

Abutalebi, J., Della Rosa, P. A., Green, D. W., Hernandez, M., Scifo, P., Keim, R., Cappa, S. F., & Costa, A. (2012). Bilingualism tunes the anterior cingulate cortex for conflict monitoring. Cerebral Cortex, 22(9), 2076–2086. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhr287 Alladi, S., Bak, T. H., Duggirala, V., Surampudi, B., Shailaja, M., Shukla, A. K., Chaudhuri, J. R., & Kaul, S. (2013). Bilingualism delays age at onset of dementia, indipendent of education and immigration status. Neurology, 81, 1938–1944. https://doi.org/10.1212/01.WNL.0000437347.92583.fc Anand, K., & Dhikav, V. (2012). Hippocampus in health and disease: An overview. Annals of Indian Academy of Neurology, 15(4), 239–246. https://doi.org/10.4103/0972-2327.104323 Anderson, J. A. E., Grundy, J. G., De Frutos, J., Barker, R. M., Grady, C., & Bialystok, E. (2018). Effects of bilingualism on white matter integrity in older adults. NeuroImage, 167(June 2017), 143–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.11.038 Anderson, J. A. E., Hawrylewicz, K., & Grundy, J. G. (2020). Does bilingualism protect against dementia? A meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-020-01736-5 Anderson, J. A. E., Mak, L., Keyvani Chahi, A., & Bialystok, E. (2018). The language and social background questionnaire: Assessing degree of bilingualism in a diverse population. Behavior Research Methods, 50(1), 250–263. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-017-0867-9 Apostolova, L. G., Dutton, R. A., Dinov, I. D., Hayashi, K. M., Toga, A. W., Cummings, J. L., & Thompson, P. M. (2006). Conversion of mild cognitive impairment to alzheimer disease predicted by hippocampal atrophy maps. Archives of Neurology, 63(5), 693–699. https://doi.org/10.1001/archneur.63.5.693 Bak, T. H. (2016). Cooking pasta in La Paz. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 6(5), 699–717. https://doi.org/10.1075/lab.16002.bak Bellander, M., Berggren, R., Mårtensson, J., Brehmer, Y., Wenger, E., Li, T. Q., Bodammer, N. C., Shing, Y. L., Werkle-Bergner, M., & Lövdén, M. (2016). Behavioral correlates of changes in hippocampal gray matter structure during acquisition of foreign vocabulary. NeuroImage, 131, 205–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.10.020 Bellmund, J. L. S., Gärdenfors, P., Moser, E. I., & Doeller, C. F. (2018). Navigating cognition: Spatial codes for human thinking. Science (New York, N.Y.), 362(6415). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aat6766 Berkes, M., Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., Troyer, A., & Freedman, M. (2020). Conversion of Mild Cognitive Impairment to Alzheimer Disease in Monolingual and Bilingual Patients. Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders, 00(00), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1097/WAD.0000000000000373 Berkes, M., Calvo, N., Anderson, J. A. E., & Bialystok, E. (2021). Poorer clinical outcomes for older adult monolinguals when matched to bilinguals on brain health. Brain Structure and Function, 0123456789. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-020-02185-5 Bettio, L. E. B., Rajendran, L., & Gil-Mohapel, J. (2017). The effects of aging in the hippocampus and cognitive decline. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 79(November 2016), 66–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.04.030 Bialystok, E. (2017). The bilingual adaptation: How minds accommodate experience. Psychological Bulletin, 143(3), 233–262. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000099 Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., & Freedman, M. (2007). Bilingualism as a protection against the onset of symptoms of dementia. Neuropsychologia, 45(2), 459–464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.10.009 Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., Klein, R., & Viswanathan, M. (2004). Bilingualism, Aging, and Cognitive Control: Evidence From the Simon Task. Psychology and Aging, 19(2), 290–303. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.19.2.290 Bird, C. M., & Burgess, N. (2008). The hippocampus and memory: Insights from spatial processing. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 9(3), 182–194. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2335 Borsa, V. M., Perani, D., Della Rosa, P. A., Videsott, G., Guidi, L., Weekes, B. S., Franceschini, R., & Abutalebi, J. (2018). Bilingualism and healthy aging: Aging effects and neural maintenance. Neuropsychologia, 111(January), 51–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2018.01.012 Breitenstein, C., Jansen, A., Deppe, M., Foerster, A. F., Sommer, J., Wolbers, T., & Knecht, S. (2005). Hippocampus activity differentiates good from poor learners of a novel lexicon. NeuroImage, 25(3), 958–968. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.12.019 Bruno, D., & Vignaga, S. S. (2019). Addenbrooke’s cognitive examination III in the diagnosis of dementia: A critical review. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 15, 441–447. https://doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S151253 Cabeza, R., Albert, M., Belleville, S., Craik, F. I. M. M., Duarte, A., Grady, C. L., Lindenberger, U., Nyberg, L., Park, D. C., Reuter-Lorenz, P. A., Rugg, M. D., Steffener, J., & Rajah, M. N. (2018). Maintenance, reserve and compensation: the cognitive neuroscience of healthy ageing. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 19(11), 701–710. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41583-018-0068-2 Calabria, M., Hernández, M., Cattaneo, G., Suades, A., Serra, M., Juncadella, M., Reñé, R., Sala, I., Lleó, A., Ortiz-Gil, J., Ugas, L., Ávila, A., Ruiz, I. G., Ávila, C., & Costa, A. (2020). Active bilingualism delays the onset of mild cognitive impairment. Neuropsychologia, 107528. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2020.107528 Costa, A., Hernández, M., Costa-Faidella, J., & Sebastián-Gallés, N. (2009). On the bilingual advantage in conflict processing: Now you see it, now you don’t. Cognition, 113(2), 135–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2009.08.001 Costumero, V., Marin-Marin, L., Calabria, M., Belloch, V., Escudero, J., Baquero, M., Hernandez, M., Ruiz de Miras, J., Costa, A., Parcet, M.-A., & Ávila, C. (2020). A cross-sectional and longitudinal study on the protective effect of bilingualism against dementia using brain atrophy and cognitive measures. Alzheimer’s Research & Therapy, 12(1), 11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13195-020-0581-1 Darwish, H., Farran, N., Assaad, S., & Chaaya, M. (2018). Cognitive reserve factors in a developing country: Education and occupational attainment lower the risk of dementia in a sample of lebanese older adults. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 10(SEP), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2018.00277 de Bruin, A. (2019). Not All Bilinguals Are the Same: A Call for More Detailed Assessments and Descriptions of Bilingual Experiences. Behavioral Sciences, 9(3), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3390/BS9030033 De Cat, C., Gusnanto, A., & Serratrice, L. (2018). Identifying a threshold for the executive function advantage in bilingual children. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 40(1), 119–151. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263116000486 DeLuca, V., Rothman, J., Bialystok, E., & Pliatsikas, C. (2019). Redefining bilingualism as a spectrum of experiences that differentially affects brain structure and function. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(15), 7565–7574. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1811513116 DeLuca, V., Rothman, J., Bialystok, E., & Pliatsikas, C. (2020). Duration and extent of bilingual experience modulate neurocognitive outcomes. NeuroImage, 204(May 2019), 116222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.116222 DeLuca, V., Rothman, J., & Pliatsikas, C. (2019). Linguistic immersion and structural effects on the bilingual brain: a longitudinal study. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 22(5), 1160–1175. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728918000883 Dickerson, B. C., & Eichenbaum, H. (2010). The episodic memory system: Neurocircuitry and disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology, 35(1), 86–104. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2009.126 Duncan, H. D., Nikelski, J., Pilon, R., Steffener, J., Chertkow, H., & Phillips, N. A. (2018). Structural brain differences between monolingual and multilingual patients with mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer disease: Evidence for cognitive reserve. Neuropsychologia, 109(October 2017), 270–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.12.036 Erickson, K. I., Voss, M. W., Prakash, R. S., Basak, C., Szabo, A., Chaddock, L., Kim, J. S., Heo, S., Alves, H., White, S. M., Wojcicki, T. R., Mailey, E., Vieira, V. J., Martin, S. A., Pence, B. D., Woods, J. A., McAuley, E., & Kramer, A. F. (2011). Exercise training increases size of hippocampus and improves memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108(7), 3017–3022. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1015950108 Erten-Lyons, D., Woltjer, R. L., Dodge, H., Nixon, R., Vorobik, R., Calvert, J. F., Leahy, M., Montine, T., & Kaye, J. (2009). Factors associated with resistance to dementia despite high Alzheimer disease pathology. Neurology, 72(4), 354–360. https://doi.org/10.1212/01.wnl.0000341273.18141.64 Farokhian, F., Yang, C., Beheshti, I., Matsuda, H., & Wu, S. (2017). Age-related gray and white matter changes in normal adult brains. Aging and Disease, 8(6), 899–909. https://doi.org/10.14336/AD.2017.0502 Firth, J., Stubbs, B., Vancampfort, D., Schuch, F., Lagopoulos, J., Rosenbaum, S., & Ward, P. B. (2018). Effect of aerobic exercise on hippocampal volume in humans: A systematic review and meta-analysis. NeuroImage, 166(April 2017), 230–238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.11.007 Fjell, A. M., Walhovd, K. B., Fennema-Notestine, C., McEvoy, L. K., Hagler, D. J., Holland, D., Brewer, J. B., & Dale, A. M. (2009). One-year brain atrophy evident in healthy aging. Journal of Neuroscience, 29(48), 15223–15231. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3252-09.2009 Fotuhi, M., Do, D., & Jack, C. (2012). Modifiable factors that alter the size of the hippocampus with ageing. Nature Reviews Neurology, 8(4), 189–202. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrneurol.2012.27 Foubert-Samier, A., Catheline, G., Amieva, H., Dilharreguy, B., Helmer, C., Allard, M., & Dartigues, J. F. (2012). Education, occupation, leisure activities, and brain reserve: A population-based study. Neurobiology of Aging, 33(2), 423.e15-423.e25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2010.09.023 Fox, N. C., & Schott, J. M. (2004). Imaging cerebral atrophy: normal ageing to Alzheimer’s disease. The Lancet, 363(9406), 392–394. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(04)15441-X Fraser, M. A., Shaw, M. E., & Cherbuin, N. (2015). A systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal hippocampal atrophy in healthy human ageing. NeuroImage, 112, 364–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.03.035 Giorgio, A., Santelli, L., Tomassini, V., Bosnell, R., Smith, S., De Stefano, N., & Johansen-Berg, H. (2010). Age-related changes in grey and white matter structure throughout adulthood. NeuroImage, 51(3), 943–951. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.03.004 Gold, B. T., Kim, C., Johnson, N. F., Kryscio, R. J., & Smith, C. D. (2013). Lifelong Bilingualism Maintains Neural Efficiency for Cognitive Control in Aging. Journal of Neuroscience, 33(2), 387–396. https://doi.org/10.1523/jneurosci.3837-12.2013 Gorbach, T., Pudas, S., Lundquist, A., Orädd, G., Josefsson, M., Salami, A., de Luna, X., & Nyberg, L. (2017). Longitudinal association between hippocampus atrophy and episodic-memory decline. Neurobiology of Aging, 51, 167–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2016.12.002 Grundy, J. G. (2020). The effects of bilingualism on executive functions : An updated quantitative analysis. Journal of Cultural Cognitive Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41809-020-00062-5 Grundy, J. G., Anderson, J. A. E., & Bialystok, E. (2017). Neural correlates of cognitive processing in monolinguals and bilinguals. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 183–201. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.13333 Gullifer, J. W., Chai, X. J., Whitford, V., Pivneva, I., & Baum, S. (2018). Neuropsychologia Bilingual experience and resting-state brain connectivity : Impacts of L2 age of acquisition and social diversity of language use on control networks. Neuropsychologia, 117(May), 123–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2018.04.037 Hayakawa, S., & Marian, V. (2019). Consequences of multilingualism for neural architecture. Behavioral and Brain Functions, 15(1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12993-019-0157-z Hötting, K., & Röder, B. (2013). Beneficial effects of physical exercise on neuroplasticity and cognition. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 37(9), 2243–2257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.04.005 Hsieh, S., Schubert, S., Hoon, C., Mioshi, E., & Hodges, J. R. (2013). Validation of the Addenbrooke’s Cognitive Examination III in Frontotemporal Dementia and Alzheimer’s Disease. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 36(3–4), 242–250. https://doi.org/10.1159/000351671 Lehtonen, M., Soveri, A., Laine, A., Järvenpää, J., de Bruin, A., & Antfolk, J. (2018). Is bilingualism associated with enhanced executive functioning in adults? A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 144(4), 394–425. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000142 Leivada, E., Westergaard, M., Duñabeitia, J. A., & Rothman, J. (2021). On the phantom-like appearance of bilingualism effects on neurocognition: (How) should we proceed? Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 24(1), 197–210. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728920000358 Li, L., Abutalebi, J., Emmorey, K., Gong, G., Yan, X., Feng, X., Zou, L., & Ding, G. (2017). How bilingualism protects the brain from aging: Insights from bimodal bilinguals. Human Brain Mapping, 38(8), 4109–4124. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.23652 Lövdén, M., Schaefer, S., Noack, H., Bodammer, N. C., Kühn, S., Heinze, H. J., Düzel, E., Bäckman, L., & Lindenberger, U. (2012). Spatial navigation training protects the hippocampus against age-related changes during early and late adulthood. Neurobiology of Aging, 33(3), 620.e9-620.e22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2011.02.013 Luk, G., & Bialystok, E. (2013). Bilingualism is not a categorical variable: Interaction between language proficiency and usage. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 25(5), 605–621. https://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2013.795574 Mann, A., & de Bruin, A. (2021). Bilingual language use is context dependent: using the Language and Social Background Questionnaire to assess language experiences and test-rest reliability. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 0(0), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2021.1988049 Mårtensson, J., Eriksson, J., Christian, N., Lindgren, M., Johansson, M., Nyberg, L., Lövdén, M., Bodammer, N. C., Lindgren, M., Johansson, M., Nyberg, L., Lövdén, M., Christian, N., Lindgren, M., Johansson, M., Nyberg, L., & Lövdén, M. (2012). Growth of language-related brain areas after foreign language learning. NeuroImage, 63(1), 240–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.06.043 Mukadam, N., Sommerlad, A., & Livingston, G. (2017). The Relationship of Bilingualism Compared to Monolingualism to the Risk of Cognitive Decline or Dementia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 58(1), 45–54. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-170131 Nee, D., & D’Esposito, M. (2015). Working Memory. In Brain Mapping (Vol. 2, pp. 589–595). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-397025-1.00050-6 Nyberg, L., Salami, A., Andersson, M., Eriksson, J., Kalpouzos, G., Kauppi, K., Lind, J., Pudas, S., Persson, J., & Nilsson, L. G. (2010). Longitudinal evidence for diminished frontal cortex function in aging. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107(52), 22682–22686. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1012651108 O’Shea, A., Cohen, R. A., Porges, E. C., Nissim, N. R., & Woods, A. J. (2016). Cognitive aging and the hippocampus in older adults. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 8(DEC), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2016.00298 Olsen, R. K., Pangelinan, M. M., Bogulski, C., Chakravarty, M. M., Luk, G., Grady, C. L., & Bialystok, E. (2015). The effect of lifelong bilingualism on regional grey and white matter volume. Brain Research, 1612, 128–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2015.02.034 Patenaude, B., Smith, S. M., Kennedy, D. N., & Jenkinson, M. (2011). A Bayesian model of shape and appearance for subcortical brain segmentation. NeuroImage, 56(3), 907–922. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.02.046 Perneczky, R., Kempermann, G., Korczyn, A. D., Matthews, F. E., Ikram, M. A., Scarmeas, N., Chetelat, G., Stern, Y., & Ewers, M. (2019). Translational research on reserve against neurodegenerative disease: Consensus report of the International Conference on Cognitive Reserve in the Dementias and the Alzheimer’s Association Reserve, Resilience and Protective Factors Professional Interest Ar. BMC Medicine, 17(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-019-1283-z Persson, J., Nyberg, L., Lind, J., Larsson, A., Nilsson, L. G., Ingvar, M., & Buckner, R. L. (2006). Structure-function correlates of cognitive decline in aging. Cerebral Cortex, 16(7), 907–915. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhj036 Pliatsikas, C. (2020). Understanding structural plasticity in the bilingual brain: The Dynamic Restructuring Model. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 23(2), 459–471. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728919000130 Pliatsikas, C., DeLuca, V., Moschopoulou, E., & Saddy, J. D. (2017). Immersive bilingualism reshapes the core of the brain. Brain Structure and Function, 222(4), 1785–1795. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-016-1307-9 Pliatsikas, C., DeLuca, V., & Voits, T. (2020). The Many Shades of Bilingualism: Language Experiences Modulate Adaptations in Brain Structure. Language Learning, 70(S2), 133–149. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12386 Pliatsikas, C., Pereira Soares, S. M., Voits, T., Deluca, V., & Rothman, J. (2021). Bilingualism is a long-term cognitively challenging experience that modulates metabolite concentrations in the healthy brain. Scientific Reports, 11(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-86443-4 Ritchie, S. J., Hill, W. D., Marioni, R. E., Davies, G., Hagenaars, S. P., Harris, S. E., Cox, S. R., Taylor, A. M., Corley, J., Pattie, A., Redmond, P., Starr, J. M., & Deary, I. J. (2019). Polygenic predictors of age-related decline in cognitive ability. Molecular Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-019-0372-x Rönnlund, M., Nyberg, L., Bäckman, L., & Nilsson, L. G. (2005). Stability, growth, and decline in adult life span development of declarative memory: Cross-sectional and longitudinal data from a population-based study. Psychology and Aging, 20(1), 3–18. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.20.1.3 Schroeder, S. R., & Marian, V. (2012). A bilingual advantage for episodic memory in older adults. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 24(5), 591–601. https://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2012.669367 Smith, S. M., Jenkinson, M., Woolrich, M. W., Beckmann, C. F., Behrens, T. E. J., Johansen-Berg, H., Bannister, P. R., De Luca, M., Drobnjak, I., Flitney, D. E., Niazy, R. K., Saunders, J., Vickers, J., Zhang, Y., De Stefano, N., Brady, J. M., & Matthews, P. M. (2004). Advances in functional and structural MR image analysis and implementation as FSL. NeuroImage, 23(SUPPL. 1), 208–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.07.051 Smith, S. M., & Nichols, T. E. (2009). Threshold-free cluster enhancement: Addressing problems of smoothing, threshold dependence and localisation in cluster inference. NeuroImage, 44(1), 83–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.03.061 Stern, Y. (2002). What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society : JINS, 8(3), 448–460. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617702813248 Stern, Y., Arenaza-Urquijo, E. M., Bartrés-Faz, D., Belleville, S., Cantilon, M., Chetelat, G., Ewers, M., Franzmeier, N., Kempermann, G., Kremen, W. S., Okonkwo, O., Scarmeas, N., Soldan, A., Udeh-Momoh, C., Valenzuela, M., Vemuri, P., Vuoksimaa, E., Arenaza Urquiljo, E. M., Bartrés-Faz, D., … Vuoksimaa, E. (2018). Whitepaper: Defining and investigating cognitive reserve, brain reserve, and brain maintenance. Alzheimer’s and Dementia, September, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2018.07.219 Sullivan, M. D., Prescott, Y., Goldberg, D., & Bialystok, E. (2016). Executive control processes in verbal and nonverbal working memory: The role of aging and bilingualism. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 6(1–2), 147–170. https://doi.org/10.1075/lab.15056.sul Sumowski, J. F., Rocca, M. A., Leavitt, V. M., Riccitelli, G., Meani, A., Comi, G., & Filippi, M. (2016). Reading, writing, and reserve: Literacy activities are linked to hippocampal volume and memory in multiple sclerosis. Multiple Sclerosis, 22(12), 1621–1625. https://doi.org/10.1177/1352458516630822 Surrain, S., & Luk, G. (2019). Describing bilinguals: A systematic review of labels and descriptions used in the literature between 2005–2015. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 22(2), 401–415. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728917000682 Ullman, M. T. (2004). Contributions of memory circuits to language: the declarative/procedural model. Cognition, 92(1–2), 231–270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2003.10.008 Valenzuela, M. J., & Sachdev, P. (2006). Brain reserve and dementia: A systematic review. Psychological Medicine, 36(4), 441–454. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291705006264 Voits, T., Pliatsikas, C., Robson, H., & Rothman, J. (2020). Beyond Alzheimer’s disease: Can bilingualism be a more generalized protective factor in neurodegeneration? Neuropsychologia, 147(April), 107593. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2020.107593 Weintraub, S., Dikmen, S. S., Heaton, R. K., Tulsky, D. S., Zelazo, P. D., Bauer, P. J., Carlozzi, N. E., Slotkin, J., Blitz, D., Wallner-Allen, K., Fox, N. A., Beaumont, J. L., Mungas, D., Nowinski, C. J., Richler, J., Deocampo, J. A., Anderson, J. E., Manly, J. J., Borosh, B., … Gershon, R. C. (2013). Cognition assessment using the NIH Toolbox. Neurology, 80(Issue 11, Supplement 3), S54–S64. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182872ded Yaffe, K., Fiocco, A. J., Lindquist, K., Vittinghoff, E., Simonsick, E. M., Newman, A. B., Satterfield, S., Rosano, C., Rubin, S. M., Ayonayon, H. N., & Harris, T. B. (2009). Predictors of maintaining cognitive function in older adults: The Health ABC Study. Neurology, 72(23), 2029–2035. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181a92c36 Yeung, C. M., St. John, P. D., Menec, V., & Tyas, S. L. (2014). Is Bilingualism Associated With a Lower Risk of Dementia in Community-living Older Adults? Cross-sectional and Prospective Analyses. Alzheimer Disease & Associated Disorders, 28(4), 326–332. https://doi.org/10.1097/WAD.0000000000000019 Zahodne, L. B., Schofield, P. W., Farrell, M. T., Stern, Y., & Manly, J. J. (2014). Bilingualism does not alter cognitive decline or dementia risk among spanish-speaking immigrants. Neuropsychology, 28(2), 238–246. https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0000014