Age-related differences in speech and gray matter volume: the modulating role of multilingualism
Yu, H., Kang, K., Pliatsikas, C.
It is advisable to refer to the publisher's version if you intend to cite from this work. See Guidance on citing. To link to this item DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2025.121149 Abstract/SummarySpeech involves complex processes like language formulation, motor coordination, and cognitive functions. As people age, their speech abilities often decline, showing reduced fluency and complexity. Older adults also show decreased gray matter volume. However, the relationship between age-related differences in speech and gray matter volume remain unclear. Multilinguals may exhibit unique age-related speech patterns depending on their language profiles. This study investigates the relationships between age-related differences in brain structure and multilingual speech across different languages, considering the effects of multilingual experience. An integrated measure of speech was calculated and used to reflect the overall speech quality, which was lower in older than younger adults. Native language speech (i.e., Cantonese) was higher than non-native language speech (i.e., Mandarin), especially in older adults. More extensive use of multiple languages was associated with enhanced speech quality in both native and non-native languages. Age significantly impacts whole brain gray matter volume, which was lower in older than younger adults. The right middle temporal gyrus emerged as a critical region for speech in both languages in older adults. Bilateral putamen shows sensitivity to the effect of multilingual experience on speech performance in older adults. These findings underscore the complex interplay between age, multilingualism, and brain structure, providing valuable insights into the neural mechanisms underlying multilingual speech performance.
DownloadsDownloads per month over past year
Abutalebi, J., Della Rosa, P. A., Green, D. W., Hernandez, M., Scifo, P., Keim, R., Cappa, S. F., & Costa, A. (2012). Bilingualism tunes the anterior cingulate cortex for conflict monitoring. Cerebral Cortex, 22(9), 2076-2086.
Abutalebi, J., & Green, D. (2007). Bilingual language production: The neurocognition of language representation and control. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 20(3), 242-275.
Abutalebi, J., & Green, D. (2008). Control mechanisms in bilingual language production: Neural evidence from language switching studies. Language and Cognitive Processes, 23(4), 557-582.
Abutalebi, J., Guidi, L., Borsa, V., Canini, M., Della Rosa, P. A., Parris, B. A., & Weekes, B. S. (2015). Bilingualism provides a neural reserve for aging populations. Neuropsychologia, 69, 201-210.
Acheson, D. J., Wells, J. B., & MacDonald, M. C. (2008). New and updated tests of print exposure and reading abilities in college students. Behavior Research Methods, 40(1), 278-289.
Ashburner, J. (2007). A fast diffeomorphic image registration algorithm. Neuroimage, 38(1), 95-113.
Bilodeau-Mercure, M., Lortie, C. L., Sato, M., Guitton, M. J., & Tremblay, P. (2015). The neurobiology of speech perception decline in aging. Brain Structure and Function, 220, 979-997.
Binder, J. R., Desai, R. H., Graves, W. W., & Conant, L. L. (2009). Where is the semantic system? A critical review and meta-analysis of 120 functional neuroimaging studies. Cerebral Cortex, 19(12), 2767-2796.
Birdsong, D. (2006). Age and second language acquisition and processing: A selective overview. Language Learning, 56(s1), 9-49.
Bortfeld, H., Leon, S. D., Bloom, J. E., Schober, M. F., & Brennan, S. E. (2001). Disfluency rates in conversation: Effects of age, relationship, topic, role, and gender. Language and Speech, 44(2), 123-147.
Brown, R. (1973). Development of the first language in the human species. American Psychologist, 28(2), 97-106. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0034209
Burke, D. M., & Shafto, M. A. (2008). Language and aging. In The handbook of aging and cognition, 3rd ed. (pp. 373-443). Psychology Press.
Burke, D. M., & Shafto, M. A. (2011). Language and aging. In The handbook of aging and cognition (pp. 381-451). Psychology Press.
Bygate, M. (1999). Quality of language and purpose of task: Patterns of learners’ language on two oral communication tasks. Language teaching research, 3(3), 185-214.
Cabeza, R. (2002). Hemispheric asymmetry reduction in older adults: the HAROLD model. Psychology and Aging, 17(1), 85-100.
Chang, S.-E., Kenney, M. K., Loucks, T. M., Poletto, C. J., & Ludlow, C. L. (2009). Common neural substrates support speech and non-speech vocal tract gestures. NeuroImage, 47(1), 314-325.
Cheung, H., & Kemper, S. (1992). Competing complexity metrics and adults' production of complex sentences. Applied Psycholinguistics, 13(1), 53-76.
Costa, A., Calabria, M., Marne, P., Hernández, M., Juncadella, M., Gascón-Bayarri, J., Lleó, A., Ortiz-Gil, J., Ugas, L., & Blesa, R. (2012). On the parallel deterioration of lexico-semantic processes in the bilinguals’ two languages: Evidence from Alzheimer's disease. Neuropsychologia, 50(5), 740-753.
Dai, X., Gong, Y., & Zhong, L. (1990). Factor analysis of the mainland Chinese version of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 2(1), 31.
De Craen, A. J., Heeren, T., & Gussekloo, J. (2003). Accuracy of the 15‐item geriatric depression scale (GDS‐15) in a community sample of the oldest old. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 18(1), 63-66.
Diaz, M. T., Rizio, A. A., & Zhuang, J. (2016). The Neural Language Systems That Support Healthy Aging: Integrating Function, Structure, and Behavior. Language and Linguistics Compass, 10(7), 314-334.
Dien, J., Franklin, M. S., Michelson, C. A., Lemen, L. C., Adams, C. L., & Kiehl, K. A. (2008). fMRI characterization of the language formulation area. Brain Research, 1229, 179-192. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2008.06.107
Duchin, S. W., & Mysak, E. D. (1987). Disfluency and rate characteristics of young adult, middle-aged, and older males. Journal of Communication Disorders, 20(3), 245-257.
Ferraro, F. R., & Chelminski, I. (1996). Preliminary normative data on the Geriatric Depression Scale‐Short Form (GDS‐SF) in a young adult sample. Journal of clinical psychology, 52(4), 443-447.
Filippetti, V. A., & Allegri, R. F. (2011). Verbal fluency in Spanish-speaking children: Analysis model according to task type, clustering, and switching strategies and performance over time. The clinical neuropsychologist, 25(3), 413-436.
Fotenos, A. F., Snyder, A., Girton, L., Morris, J., & Buckner, R. (2005). Normative estimates of cross-sectional and longitudinal brain volume decline in aging and AD. Neurology, 64(6), 1032-1039.
Friesen, D. C., Luo, L., Luk, G., & Bialystok, E. (2015). Proficiency and control in verbal fluency performance across the lifespan for monolinguals and bilinguals. Language, cognition and neuroscience, 30(3), 238-250.
Geranmayeh, F., Brownsett, S. L., Leech, R., Beckmann, C. F., Woodhead, Z., & Wise, R. J. (2012). The contribution of the inferior parietal cortex to spoken language production. Brain and Language, 121(1), 47-57.
Geranmayeh, F., Wise, R. J., Mehta, A., & Leech, R. (2014). Overlapping networks engaged during spoken language production and its cognitive control. Journal of Neuroscience, 34(26), 8728-8740.
Gollan, T. H., Salmon, D. P., Montoya, R. I., & da Pena, E. (2010). Accessibility of the nondominant language in picture naming: A counterintuitive effect of dementia on bilingual language production. Neuropsychologia, 48(5), 1356-1366.
Gollan, T. H., Slattery, T. J., Goldenberg, D., Van Assche, E., Duyck, W., & Rayner, K. (2011). Frequency drives lexical access in reading but not in speaking: the frequency-lag hypothesis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 140(2), 186-209.
Grundy, J. G., Anderson, J. A., & Bialystok, E. (2017). Neural correlates of cognitive processing in monolinguals and bilinguals. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1396(1), 183-201.
Gullifer, J. W., Chai, X. J., Whitford, V., Pivneva, I., Baum, S., Klein, D., & Titone, D. (2018). Bilingual experience and resting-state brain connectivity: Impacts of L2 age of acquisition and social diversity of language use on control networks. Neuropsychologia, 117, 123-134.
Gullifer, J. W., Kousaie, S., Gilbert, A. C., Grant, A., Giroud, N., Coulter, K., Klein, D., Baum, S., Phillips, N., & Titone, D. (2021). Bilingual language experience as a multidimensional spectrum: Associations with objective and subjective language proficiency. Applied Psycholinguistics, 42(2), 245-278. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716420000521
Gullifer, J. W., & Titone, D. (2018). Compute language entropy with {languageEntropy}. Retrieved from https://github.com/jasongullifer/languageEntropy. http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1403272.
Gullifer, J. W., & Titone, D. (2019). Characterizing the social diversity of bilingualism using language entropy. Bilingualism: Language and cognition, 23(2), 283-294.
Gullifer, J. W., & Titone, D. (2021). Bilingualism: A neurocognitive exercise in managing uncertainty. Neurobiology of language, 2(4), 464-486.
Hafkemeijer, A., Altmann‐Schneider, I., de Craen, A. J., Slagboom, P. E., van der Grond, J., & Rombouts, S. A. (2014). Associations between age and gray matter volume in anatomical brain networks in middle‐aged to older adults. Aging cell, 13(6), 1068-1074.
Heald, S. L., & Nusbaum, H. C. (2014). Speech perception as an active cognitive process. Frontiers in systems neuroscience, 8, 35.
Hickok, G., & Poeppel, D. (2007). The cortical organization of speech processing. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 8(5), 393-402.
Hirshorn, E. A., & Thompson-Schill, S. L. (2006). Role of the left inferior frontal gyrus in covert word retrieval: neural correlates of switching during verbal fluency. Neuropsychologia, 44(12), 2547-2557.
Horton, W. S., Spieler, D. H., & Shriberg, E. (2010). A corpus analysis of patterns of age-related change in conversational speech. Psychology and Aging, 25(3), 708.
Housen, A., & Kuiken, F. (2009). Complexity, accuracy, and fluency in second language acquisition. Applied linguistics, 30(4), 461-473.
Indefrey, P., & Levelt, W. J. (2000). The neural correlates of language production. In The new cognitive neurosciences; 2nd ed. (pp. 845-865). MIT press.
Indefrey, P., & Levelt, W. J. (2004). The spatial and temporal signatures of word production components. Cognition, 92(1), 101-144.
James, L. E., Burke, D. M., Austin, A., & Hulme, E. (1998). Production and perception of" verbosity" in younger and older adults. Psychology and Aging, 13(3), 355.
Kaiser, H. F. (1974). An index of factorial simplicity. Psychometrika, 39(1), 31-36.
Kang, K., Xiao, Y., Yu, H., Diaz, M. T., & Zhang, H. (2023). Multilingual Language Diversity Protects Native Language Production under Different Control Demands. Brain Sciences, 13(11), 1587.
Kemper, S., Kynette, D., O'Brien, K., Rash, S., & Sprott, R. (1989). Life-span changes to adults' language: Effects of memory and genre. Applied Psycholinguistics, 10(1), 49-66. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716400008419
Kent, R. D. (2000). Research on speech motor control and its disorders: A review and prospective. Journal of communication disorders, 33(5), 391-428.
Kilman, L., Zekveld, A., Hällgren, M., & Rönnberg, J. (2014). The influence of non-native language proficiency on speech perception performance. Frontiers in psychology, 5, 651.
Korenar, M., Treffers-Daller, J., & Pliatsikas, C. (2023). Brain structure adapts dynamically to highly demanding bilingual experiences: Insights from interpreters and translators. Ampersand, 11, 100148. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amper.2023.100148
Kriegeskorte, N., Mur, M., & Bandettini, P. A. (2008). Representational similarity analysis-connecting the branches of systems neuroscience. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 2, 249.
Lemaitre, H., Goldman, A. L., Sambataro, F., Verchinski, B. A., Meyer-Lindenberg, A., Weinberger, D. R., & Mattay, V. S. (2012). Normal age-related brain morphometric changes: nonuniformity across cortical thickness, surface area and gray matter volume? Neurobiology of aging, 33(3), 617. e611-617. e619.
Lennon, P. (1990). Investigating Fluency in EFL: A Quantitative Approach*. Language Learning, 40(3), 387-417. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1990.tb00669.x
Lerman, A., & Obler, L. K. (2017). Aging in bilinguals: Normal and abnormal. Psychology of Bilingualism: The Cognitive and Emotional World of Bilinguals, 189-210.
Li, P., Puls, B., Tsai, E., & Zhang, F. A. N. (2014). Language history questionnaire (LHQ 2.0): A new dynamic web-based research tool. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 17(3), 673-680. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728913000606
Macwhinney, B. (2000). The CHILDES project: tools for analyzing talk. Child Language Teaching and Therapy, 8. https://doi.org/10.1177/026565909200800211
Malcorra, B. L. C., Mota, N. B., Weissheimer, J., Schilling, L. P., Wilson, M. A., & Hübner, L. C. (2021). Low speech connectedness in Alzheimer’s disease is associated with poorer semantic memory performance. Journal of Alzheimer's Disease, 82(3), 905-912.
Malek, A., Hekmati, I., Amiri, S., Pirzadeh, J., & Gholizadeh, H. (2013). Designing and standardization of Persian version of verbal fluency test among Iranian bilingual (Turkish-Persian) adolescents. Journal of Research in Clinical Medicine, 1(1), 32-42.
Manchon, M., Buetler, K., Colombo, F., Spierer, L., Assal, F., & Annoni, J.-M. (2015). Impairment of both languages in late bilinguals with dementia of the Alzheimer type. Bilingualism: Language and cognition, 18(01), 90-100.
Marin-Marin, L., Costumero, V., Ávila, C., & Pliatsikas, C. (2022). Dynamic effects of immersive bilingualism on cortical and subcortical grey matter volumes. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 886222.
Mirman, D., Chen, Q., Zhang, Y., Wang, Z., Faseyitan, O. K., Coslett, H. B., & Schwartz, M. F. (2015). Neural organization of spoken language revealed by lesion-symptom mapping. Nature communications, 6.
Mortensen, L., Meyer, A. S., & Humphreys, G. W. (2006). Age-related effects on speech production: A review. Language and Cognitive Processes, 21(1-3), 238-290.
Moscoso del Prado Martín, F. (2017). Vocabulary, Grammar, Sex, and Aging. Cognitive Science, 41(4), 950-975. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/cogs.12367
Mota, N. B., Furtado, R., Maia, P. P., Copelli, M., & Ribeiro, S. (2014). Graph analysis of dream reports is especially informative about psychosis. Scientific Reports, 4(1), 3691.
Mota, N. B., Vasconcelos, N. A., Lemos, N., Pieretti, A. C., Kinouchi, O., Cecchi, G. A., Copelli, M., & Ribeiro, S. (2012). Speech graphs provide a quantitative measure of thought disorder in psychosis. PloS One, 7(4), e34928.
Mota, N. B., Weissheimer, J., Finger, I., Ribeiro, M., Malcorra, B., & Hübner, L. (2023). Speech as a graph: developmental perspectives on the organization of spoken language. Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging.
Nanchen, G., Abutalebi, J., Assal, F., Manchon, M., Démonet, J.-F., & Annoni, J.-M. (2017). Second language performances in elderly bilinguals and individuals with dementia: The role of L2 immersion. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 43, Part A, 49-58.
Nasreddine, Z. S., Phillips, N. A., Bédirian, V., Charbonneau, S., Whitehead, V., Collin, I., Cummings, J. L., & Chertkow, H. (2005). The Montreal Cognitive Assessment, MoCA: a brief screening tool for mild cognitive impairment. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 53(4), 695-699.
Nip, I. S., & Blumenfeld, H. K. (2015). Proficiency and linguistic complexity influence speech motor control and performance in Spanish language learners. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 58(3), 653-668.
Obler, L. K., & Albert, M. L. (1981). Language and aging: A neurobehavioral analysis. Aging: Communication processes and disorders, 107-121.
Ortega, L. (2003). Syntactic Complexity Measures and their Relationship to L2 Proficiency: A Research Synthesis of College‐level L2 Writing. Applied linguistics, 24(4), 492-518. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/24.4.492
Osborne, J. (2011). Fluency, complexity and informativeness in native and non-native speech. International Journal of Corpus Linguistics, 16(2), 276-298.
Papeo, L., Agostini, B., & Lingnau, A. (2019). The large-scale organization of gestures and words in the middle temporal gyrus. Journal of Neuroscience, 39(30), 5966-5974.
Peramunage, D., Blumstein, S. E., Myers, E. B., Goldrick, M., & Baese-Berk, M. (2011). Phonological neighborhood effects in spoken word production: An fMRI study. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 23(3), 593-603.
Pfefferbaum, A., Rohlfing, T., Rosenbloom, M. J., Chu, W., Colrain, I. M., & Sullivan, E. V. (2013). Variation in longitudinal trajectories of regional brain volumes of healthy men and women (ages 10 to 85 years) measured with atlas-based parcellation of MRI. NeuroImage, 65, 176-193.
Pliatsikas, C. (2020). Understanding structural plasticity in the bilingual brain: The Dynamic Restructuring Model. Bilingualism: Language and cognition, 23(2), 459-471.
Pobric, G., Jefferies, E., & Ralph, M. A. L. (2007). Anterior temporal lobes mediate semantic representation: mimicking semantic dementia by using rTMS in normal participants. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104(50), 20137-20141.
Poldrack, R. A., Temple, E., Protopapas, A., Nagarajan, S., Tallal, P., Merzenich, M., & Gabrieli, J. D. (2001). Relations between the neural bases of dynamic auditory processing and phonological processing: evidence from fMRI. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 13(5), 687-697.
Poldrack, R. A., Wagner, A. D., Prull, M. W., Desmond, J. E., Glover, G. H., & Gabrieli, J. D. (1999). Functional specialization for semantic and phonological processing in the left inferior prefrontal cortex. NeuroImage, 10(1), 15-35.
Price, C. J. (2010). The anatomy of language: a review of 100 fMRI studies published in 2009. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1191(1), 62-88.
R Core Team, R. (2013). R: A language and environment for statistical computing.
Ralph, M. A. L., Jefferies, E., Patterson, K., & Rogers, T. T. (2017). The neural and computational bases of semantic cognition. Nature reviews neuroscience, 18(1), 42-55.
Ramanoël, S., Hoyau, E., Kauffmann, L., Renard, F., Pichat, C., Boudiaf, N., Krainik, A., Jaillard, A., & Baciu, M. (2018). Gray matter volume and cognitive performance during normal aging. A voxel-based morphometry study. Frontiers in aging neuroscience, 10, 235.
Raz, N., Lindenberger, U., Rodrigue, K. M., Kennedy, K. M., Head, D., Williamson, A., Dahle, C., Gerstorf, D., & Acker, J. D. (2005). Regional brain changes in aging healthy adults: general trends, individual differences and modifiers. Cerebral Cortex, 15(11), 1676-1689.
Resnick, S. M., Pham, D. L., Kraut, M. A., Zonderman, A. B., & Davatzikos, C. (2003). Longitudinal magnetic resonance imaging studies of older adults: a shrinking brain. Journal of Neuroscience, 23(8), 3295-3301.
Revelle, W. (2015). Procedures for personality and psychological research. Northwestern University, Evanston, IL.
Ridderinkhof, K. R., Van Den Wildenberg, W. P., Segalowitz, S. J., & Carter, C. S. (2004). Neurocognitive mechanisms of cognitive control: the role of prefrontal cortex in action selection, response inhibition, performance monitoring, and reward-based learning. Brain and Cognition, 56(2), 129-140.
Rolls, E. T., Huang, C.-C., Lin, C.-P., Feng, J., & Joliot, M. (2020). Automated anatomical labelling atlas 3. Neuroimage, 206, 116189. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.116189
Rosselli, M., Ardila, A., Araujo, K., Weekes, V. A., Caracciolo, V., Padilla, M., & Ostrosky-Solí, F. (2000). Verbal fluency and repetition skills in healthy older Spanish-English bilinguals. Applied Neuropsychology, 7(1), 17-24.
Segalowitz, N., & Hulstijn, J. (2005). Automaticity in Bilingualism and Second Language Learning. In Handbook of bilingualism: Psycholinguistic approaches. (pp. 371-388). Oxford University Press.
Segalowttz, N. (2007). Access Fluidity, Attention Control, and the Acquisition of Fluency in a Second Language. TESOL Quarterly, 41(1), 181-186. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40264338
Seghier, M. L., & Price, C. J. (2009). Reading aloud boosts connectivity through the putamen. Cerebral Cortex, bhp123.
Shannon, C. E. (1948). A mathematical theory of communication. The Bell system technical journal, 27(3), 379-423.
Shriberg, E. (1999). Phonetic consequences of speech disfluency. Proceedings of the International Congress of Phonetic Sciences,
Sowell, E. R., Peterson, B. S., Thompson, P. M., Welcome, S. E., Henkenius, A. L., & Toga, A. W. (2003). Mapping cortical change across the human life span. Nature Neuroscience, 6(3), 309-315.
Sowell, E. R., Thompson, P. M., & Toga, A. W. (2004). Mapping changes in the human cortex throughout the span of life. The Neuroscientist, 10(4), 372-392.
Tachbelie, M. Y., Abate, S. T., & Schultz, T. (2020). Analysis of globalphone and ethiopian languages speech corpora for multilingual asr. Proceedings of the Twelfth Language Resources and Evaluation Conference,
Tremblay, P., & Deschamps, I. (2016). Structural brain aging and speech production: a surface-based brain morphometry study. Brain Structure and Function, 221, 3275-3299.
Turker, S., Kuhnke, P., Eickhoff, S. B., Caspers, S., & Hartwigsen, G. (2023). Cortical, subcortical, and cerebellar contributions to language processing: A meta-analytic review of 403 neuroimaging experiments. Psychological Bulletin.
Ullman, M. T. (2001). A neurocognitive perspective on language: The declarative/procedural model. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2(10), 717-726.
van den Berg, F., Brouwer, J., Tienkamp, T. B., Verhagen, J., & Keijzer, M. (2022). Language entropy relates to behavioral and pupil indices of executive control in young adult bilinguals. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 1760.
Viñas-Guasch, N., & Wu, Y. J. (2017). The role of the putamen in language: a meta-analytic connectivity modeling study. Brain Structure and Function, 222, 3991-4004.
Visser, M., Jefferies, E., & Ralph, M. L. (2010). Semantic processing in the anterior temporal lobes: a meta-analysis of the functional neuroimaging literature. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 22(6), 1083-1094.
Voits, T., Pliatsikas, C., Robson, H., & Rothman, J. (2020). Beyond Alzheimer's disease: Can bilingualism be a more generalized protective factor in neurodegeneration? Neuropsychologia, 147, 107593. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2020.107593
Wechsler, D. (1997). Wechsler adult intelligence scale. Frontiers in psychology.
Wilson, S. M., Isenberg, A. L., & Hickok, G. (2009). Neural correlates of word production stages delineated by parametric modulation of psycholinguistic variables. Human brain mapping, 30(11), 3596-3608.
Winkler, R., Brückl, M., & Sendlmeier, W. (2003). The aging voice: an acoustic, electroglottographic and perceptive analysis of male and female voices. Proc. of ICPhS, 3, 2869-2872.
Wong, P. C., Ettlinger, M., Sheppard, J. P., Gunasekera, G. M., & Dhar, S. (2010). Neuroanatomical characteristics and speech perception in noise in older adults. Ear and hearing, 31(4), 471-479.
Wood, S. N. (2011). Fast stable restricted maximum likelihood and marginal likelihood estimation of semiparametric generalized linear models. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series B: Statistical Methodology, 73(1), 3-36.
Yan, X., Kim, H. R., & Kim, J. Y. (2021). Dimensionality of speech fluency: Examining the relationships among complexity, accuracy, and fluency (CAF) features of speaking performances on the Aptis test. Language Testing, 38(4), 485-510.
Zhang, H., Wu, Y. J., & Thierry, G. (2020). Bilingualism and aging: A focused neuroscientific review. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 54, 100890.
Zimmerman, M. E., Brickman, A. M., Paul, R. H., Grieve, S. M., Tate, D. F., Gunstad, J., Cohen, R. A., Aloia, M. S., Williams, L. M., & Clark, C. R. (2006). The relationship between frontal gray matter volume and cognition varies across the healthy adult lifespan. The American journal of geriatric psychiatry, 14(10), 823-833. University Staff: Request a correction | Centaur Editors: Update this record |