Abstract/Summary

Vocabulary is essential for learning a second or foreign language, as it is closely related to overall language proficiency. In the context of Chinese junior high schools, however, where curriculums and teaching goals are often exam-oriented, vocabulary learning within the language classroom faces several significant challenges. Students’ vocabulary learning is typically driven by external motivations, relies heavily on rote learning of wordlists, and lacks exposure to authentic contexts. Additionally, in China, limited instructional time allocated for English learning hinders personalised support for individual learner needs. Technology-enhanced vocabulary learning incorporating self-regulated learning (SRL) mechanism offers potential solutions to these challenges. This current study, therefore, conducted an experiment to explore the influence of two types of technology-enhanced vocabulary approaches, that is, digital flashcards (DF) and video enhancement (VE), on vocabulary learning. A mixed-method explanatory between-participant design was adopted among 132 Chinese junior high school English as a foreign language (EFL) learners from three intact classes, randomly assigned to four experimental groups, i.e., DF, DFSRL (DF plus SRL mechanism), VE, VESRL (VE plus SRL mechanism), and a control group. Before the intervention, participants completed a baseline vocabulary test and a self-regulation questionnaire to measure learners’ pre-existing levels of vocabulary knowledge and self-regulation. They also completed a vocabulary pre-test to assess their knowledge of the sixty target words. Within a six-week intervention (one 45-minute session per week), participants from the four experimental groups studied the target words under different instructional conditions. In the DF group, students learned vocabulary through digital flashcards (in the form of multiple-choice tasks with immediate feedback). In the VE group, students studied words by watching video clips that provided real-world contexts. The DFSRL and VESRL groups followed the same tasks as DF and VE, respectively, but with the SRL mechanism integrated to enhance intrinsic motivation, including goal-setting, note-taking, and appraisal modules. To investigate the effects of repetitions on vocabulary learning through the technology-enhanced approaches, the 60 target words were divided into four lists, repeated a varying number of times: List 1 six times, List 2 five times, List 3 four times, and List 4 three times. Vocabulary learning gains were assessed through an immediate post-test at the end of each intervention session, covering three knowledge dimensions: written form recognition, aural form recognition, and meaning recall. One month after the final intervention session, a vocabulary delayed post-test evaluated the effects of different repetitions. Learners’ attitudes toward the interventions were also gathered through open-ended questions. The control group received no intervention but completed all vocabulary tests and the self-regulation questionnaire. The findings for each research question are summarised as follows. The first research question investigated the effects of the experimental conditions. All intervention groups achieved significantly greater learning gains than the control group across the three dimensions of vocabulary knowledge, and VE outperformed DF in all aspects. The SRL mechanism had varying effects: VESRL outperformed VE, and DFSRL outperformed DF in written form recognition. For aural form recognition, VESRL was more effective than VE, and there was no significant difference between DFSRL and DF. For meaning recall, there was no difference between VESRL and VE, and DFSRL was less effective than DF. The second research question examined the moderating effects of pre-existing vocabulary knowledge and self-regulation. Self-regulation showed no significant moderating effect across the four intervention groups. Pre-existing levels of vocabulary knowledge did not significantly moderate written or aural form recognition but had a small negative effect on VESRL for meaning recall. DFSRL benefited learners with higher levels of pre-existing vocabulary knowledge, and DF was more effective for those with lower levels. The third research question explored the role of repetitions. No significant differences in form recognition (either written or aural) were observed across varying repetitions in VESRL, DF or DFSRL. In VE, however, both aural and written form recognition were improved when repetitions increased. For meaning recall, gains were significantly moderated by repetitions in all groups with five repetitions observed as the optimum number of repetitions. The fourth and fifth research questions examined the effects of the SRL mechanism, focusing on the goal-setting and note-taking modules. Regarding the goal-setting module, DFSRL learners were better at predicting their learning outcomes compared to VESRL learners. Two key findings emerged from the note-taking module. First, most learners in both SRL groups used repetition to reinforce the form and meaning of target words. Second, VESRL learners focused on word form, such as part of speech, spelling, and affixes, and DFSRL learners concentrated on word meaning, using prior knowledge to aid recall. The final research question investigated participants’ attitudes, revealing that VE generated greater interest and engagement than DF. Learners suggested adding practice exercises for VE and more engaging features (e.g., pictures or music) for DF. Finally, both groups found the note-taking module helpful for vocabulary retention, but the goal-setting module was less effective. To sum up, the current study provides valuable insights into theories of vocabulary learning, particularly in technology-enhanced learning contexts. The main findings highlight the effectiveness and usefulness of technology-enhanced vocabulary learning approaches, suggesting that L2 vocabulary instruction could be more effective when combining engaging multimodal resources, repeatedly practicing and providing personalised support.